Electrosprayed MnFe₂O₄/PVDF membrane integrated microfluidic chip for amoxicillin removal with real-time monitoring of pH and dissolved oxygen

The increasing contamination of water with antibiotics presents significant environmental and health hazards, leading to a rise in antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. This work focused on the removal of one common pharmaceutical contaminant, Amoxicillin (AMX) from water. The approach involved enhancing a microfluidic chip by integrating a poly vinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane, aiming the highest and most precise adsorption capacity. The designed microfluidic chip included optical pH and dissolved oxygen sensors. The sensors enabled real-time monitoring of the solution to guarantee efficient removal of AMX. To increase the efficiency of a PVDF membrane for AMX elimination, MnFe₂O₄ nanoparticles with particle size around 25 nm were utilized as modifier adsorbent. The chemical, morphological, and elemental content of the modified porous membrane was determined using FTIR, XRD, FESEM, and EDS characterizations and confirmed the loading of MnFe₂O₄ nanoparticles on the PVDF membrane. The BET analysis revealed that the structural alteration obtained using the electrospray approach greatly increased the membrane's surface area after adding the nanoparticles approximately from 11.09 to 80.87 m²g⁻¹. The hydrophilicity and thermal stability of the membranes were assessed, showing their applicability for efficient filtering operations. The optical sensors enabled real-time monitoring of pH in the range of 6–8 and dissolved oxygen in the range of 80–120 %, ensuring optimal conditions for amoxicillin adsorption in high flow rates of 100 µl/min, approximately 99 %. The comprehensive design of this system significantly improved the efficiency of removing the AMX by follows the Langmuir's model, and demonstrated the adaptability and effectiveness of microfluidic technology in decreasing pharmaceutical pollution in the water sources. Moreover, it offers a simple and quick approach for users in the membrane industry to assess the manufactured membrane, making the technology accessible and feasible for broad use.